While the style has been disseminated through recordings and concert performances, it was initially fostered during weekend competitions held in major urban centers such as Durban and Johannesburg. The dance moves are stylized and synchronized as well, frequently performed up on the toes while also incorporating the stomping movement of the Zulu Ingoma dance. Performances also emphasize the group’s visual presentation, as they typically perform in coordinated elegant attire, which may include matching suits, white gloves, and two-toned shoes. The singers frequently perform in a call-and-response pattern between the lead singer and the accompanying larger ensemble. Ensembles mostly consist of bass singers with a fewer number of higher singers, including the tenor lead. Groups for isicathamiya range in size from four to over twenty members arranged in parts partially inspired by the four-part homophonic textures of Christian hymns. A live version recorded in 1955 in Carnegie Hall served as the inspiration for The Tokens’ 1961 song “The Lion Sleeps Tonight,” the most commercially successful version of the song. Seeger created his own version of the song, “Wimoweh,” a transliteration of the Zulu phrase repeated in the accompanying vocals, with his folk group The Weavers. A recording of the song was found by American ethnomusicologist and folklorist Alan Lomax and given to his friend, American folk musician Pete Seeger. While the recording includes some light instrumental accompaniment, the emphasis is on the vocals, particularly the soaring male falsetto of the lead singer and the powerful accompaniment provided by the lower singers. The most well-known song in this style, which also helped give the genre its name, was “ Mbube” by Solomon Linda and his group the Evening Birds (1939). Similar to Isicathamiya, it was typically performed a cappella by Zulu migrant workers who used the style to create a sense of community and held weekly competitions. Isicathamiya contrasts with, but also was influenced by, an earlier South African vocal style called “Mbube.” Translating as “lion,” Mbube was more forceful in its sound than the harmonious blend desired in Isicathamiya. McAdoo toured South African during the 1890s and his group is credited with influencing the creation of isicathamiya. After the Civil War black minstrel show tropes emerged, including a group led by African American singer and impresario Orpheus McAdoo. Performances included a variety of acts including songs, dances, and comic skits that drew heavily on music produced by blacks and reinforced racial stereotypes. In the decades preceding the American Civil War white performers used burnt cork on their face to portray black characters. Developed and popularized during the 19th century, the minstrel show was one of the earliest forms of theatrical entertainment within the United States.
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